Types of Bibliographies

Different Types of Bibliographies

James Guilford

James Guilford has been writing since 1998. His work appears in "The North American Review," "Identity Envy," "Parent Dish" and other publications. Guilford is the author of the novel, "The Pencil Test," as well as several e-books. Guilford has a Bachelor of Arts in sociology from Emory University and a Master of Arts in gifted education from Columbia University.

By James Guilford, eHow Contributor

 

A bibliography is a list containing details about sources of information on a specific topic. In a bibliography, writers and researchers list sources such as books, newspapers, websites, and articles from academic journals. Writers may include the author, title, publication date and publisher of the source. Research paper writers usually place the bibliography at the end of the paper. In certain cases, researchers refer to bibliographies as "references" or "works cited." The title depends on the style format of the writing.

1. Enumerative Bibliography

   • A writer of an enumerative bibliography lists references according to some specific arrangement. Students writing research papers use this type of bibliography most often. These academic writers arrange enumerative bibliographies by author, subject, date or some other scheme. The items they list share a common theme, such as topic, language or time period. The writer of the bibliography gives enough information about the source to direct readers to this source. The writer would not include descriptive information, such as details about physical qualities of the book, in an enumerative bibliography. A card catalog, a list of references in a research paper, or the works cited in the back of a history book are all examples of enumerative bibliographies.

   Analytical Bibliography

   • A writer of analytical bibliographies uses them to critically study books. The writer of an analytical bibliography may include information about printers and booksellers, descriptions of paper and binding, or discussions of issues that unfolded as the book evolved from a manuscript to published book. Three types of analytical bibliographies include descriptive, historical, and textual. A descriptive bibliography closely examines the physical nature of the book. A historical bibliography discusses the context in which the book was produces. A textual bibliography compares the published work to the author's original manuscript.

   Annotated Bibliography

   • In this type of bibliography, a writer creates an alphabetical list of sources. The writer of an annotated bibliography outlines the type of research done on a certain topic. The writer annotates, or adds notes about, the sources. Therefore, in addition to information about the research sources, the writer comments on the source. The writer may summarize. This means she gives information about the content of each reference. The writer may assess. This means she will evaluate the usefulness of the source. The writer may also reflect. This means she will give her perspective on the usefulness of the text to her particular research.

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Cross Reference

Cross Reference

What is it and how is it used?

Definition

•A reference from one part of a book, index, catalog, or file to another part containing related information.

•A cross-reference (noun) is an instance within a document which refers to related or synonymous information elsewhere, usually within the same work. To cross-reference or to cross-refer (verb) is to make such connections. The term "cross-reference" is often abbreviated as x-ref, xref, or, in computer science, XR.

 

Usage/ Purpose

 

NB. Cross-referencing is usually employed to either:

1.  verify claims made by an author or to

2.  link to another piece of work that is of related interest.

 In an index, a cross reference is often denoted by See Also or see. For example, under the term Albert Einstein in the index of a book about Nobel Laureates, there may be the cross-reference See Also: Einstein, Albert.

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Ebooks- Definition, Advantages and Disadvantages

What are Ebooks : Electronic Books?

The official definition of an ebook is:

“ebook. noun a book composed in or converted to digital format for display on a computer screen or handheld device” – Merriam-Webster.com

“e-book. noun a book that is published in electronic form, for example on the Internet or on a disk, and not printed on paper” – Cambridge.org

At least two well-known spellings ebook and e-book and countless other versions (eBook, Ebook) exist but the term ebook now is often used when referring to the methodology of reading just about any mid-to-long-length electronic document that is viewable on a screen, including research papers, short stories and even magazines.

For the purposes of this guide we’re going to talk about ebooks in their pure version: the electronic equivalent of any book or novel formatted for on-screen reading.

Why aren’t ebooks more Popular? Tactile loss And the eBabel Problem

Why aren’t ebooks more popular? The arguments seem to fall into three categories:

• Tactile loss : I like the feel and smell of paper / I can’t read on a screen
• Lending loss : I want to lend my books to who I want
• Library loss : I want a library that will last forever

While the first two are considerable arguments, the tactile loss argument is probably the most obvious and passionate argument longtime readers have, but the least serious technologically. I also feel that it’s getting outweighed by the convenience factor and the fact that we are reading more and more material everyday on a screen.

We all remember the discussions when mp3s started becoming popular and people insisted “they’ll want the album notes – they’ll want the physical CD.” Then Apple came along and introduced the iTunes Store and multiple copycats followed so buying electronic music was even easier and became mass-market through support of major record labels.

The one big difference between the music and ebook markets is there is no “mp3″ of ebooks – there is no universal ebook file format, what is often referred to as the “eBabel” problem, much like the Tower of Babel. So unlike when you bought .m4p files from Apple (their proprietary format), you could also load in mp3 files from other sources and create mp3s from your own CDs. Devices just had to read .mp3 and perhaps an additional proprietary format. With ebooks we’re still playing a format-device game and there will be no way to load in electronic versions of paper books you already own.

Lending loss is a problem that I feel less as I didn’t and don’t often exchange books with friends. In fact, I often re-read books I like so I appreciate keeping them in my library. But for other people, the fact that they can’t lend paper books to other friends, re-sell or even buy used books is a disadvantage. In some cases ebooks can be authorized for more than one device, so perhaps you and your best friend can still share books, but for now ebook sellers are determined to keep you from sharing your ebooks.

We’re in an exciting and ugly time for ebooks. There are so many formats, and each one is determined to succeed. Remember the VHS and Beta fight in the 1980s? Only one survived. This time, there are more than two major players so not only must the author and publisher decide which format(s) to publish in, and they rarely choose all formats available, now you as a consumer are forced to make a decision about where to get your content and which format to buy it in.

And what if you’re wrong? You could lose your library.

Underlying all of this is the major problem of DRM – Digital Rights Management, which I’ll talk more about when examining the ebook formats available. That’s a risk everyone is taking now buying formats that are tied to specific devices, or even a particular format in general. Almost all major books are being released with some DRM attached to them. Some format providers are seeing the benefit of being separate from a device, and are offering cross-compatibility on several devices.

Ebooks are Great! Here’s Why : Advantages of ebooks

So are there any advantages to ebooks? As I mentioned in my editorial announcement about this ebook guide, I love ebooks for several reasons: mobility, saving space, convenience, saving money and time, and ease-of-use. Here’s why:

Mobility

• Carry your entire library in your pocket: With disk space quickly becoming a commodity, and the size of portable device hard drives getting bigger and bigger, it’s conceivable to think that you could have your entire library with you and have it accessible to your fingertips.
• Backup a copy of your library with an online backup service: Backing up your entire library online or locally won’t require much space and it’s something that would be impossible with a physical library, and no more worries about fire-proofing your books.

Saving Physical Space

• Your Library is as Big as your Disk Drive: As a bit of a nomad, I’ve changed house several times in my life, and each time I’ve had to give away parts or all of my library. Your library can grow as big as the disk space you have available and will be relatively small compared to walls and walls of bookshelves. And, due to disk space becoming a commodity, it’s safe to say you’ll probably never run out of space to store your library in your lifetime.

Convenience

• Keep it? Throw it Away? It’s just Bits: Ever read a book you hated so much you wouldn’t even recommend it to your worst enemy? Now, you won’t have the guilt of having to give away or throw out that paper book you couldn’t finish. Keeping an electronic book will take up so little space you’re allowed a few mistakes, and hopefully it will allow you to experiment with different types of authors and genres.
• Your Next Book is just Moments Away: Bringing hundreds of books with you wherever you are means you never have to plan ahead for that long trip or even the bus ride across town. When you’ve finished one book, quickly browse your library and start another!

Saving Time & Money

• No Shipping Costs or Wait Time: This is a much easier argument for me to prove living as an expat with book prices being astronomical in a non-English speaking country. But, remember that when you eliminate the need for shipping that book to where you physically are, there will be some cost benefits.
• Save Gas, Save Time: Also, buying electronically will inevitably save you gas by not going to a physical bookstore, and time as from selection to purchase and reading an electronic book can be done in mere minutes.

Ease-of-Use

Not all ebook software is exactly the same, but many of them have similar settings and features that are common:

• Adjust Font Size for any Eyes: Adjust the font size, type and background color of your electronic book per your preferences.
• Add Notes, Bookmarks or Highlight: Instead of earmarking pages or marking up your paper copy, electronic copies allow you to add and delete bookmarks and notes at will and as many as you see fit.
• Searchable and Linkable Text: The text is searchable and can be hyperlinked, you can jump back-and-forth between chapters or the glossary.

Information Overload

What is “information overload”?

“Information overload” is a term coined by Alvin Toffler which refers to an excess amount of information being provided, making processing and absorbing tasks very difficult for the individual because sometimes we cannot see the validity behind the information. (Source Wikipedia)

It varies from people to people . Some of your friends can manage excess information at ease while others find it very tough and restrictive to take fast decision. This does not happens in isolation , generally if your life is in control then you will be able to manage vast amount of new, unexpected , challenging information quite easily , else this become a cause of worry.

Symptoms of  Information Overload in your work :

1. Apparent memory difficulties
2. Easily distracted
3. Worry
4. Over commitment
5. Stress
6. Procrastination
7. You freeze in your daily life and provide no meaningful output to the work you are doing.

How to cope up with the stress caused by information overload ?

1. Clear your head when pressure is at peak
2. Listen to your heart
3. Take care of your physical fitness and have proper food
4. Use your senses to be aware of what is going on around you – respond to stress.
5. Regain your perspective and change perspective on overload

How to avoid information overload at work ?

Think like a genius:  When you need to think and come out of ideas and solutions you need to use your best weapons in place. It is better to use tools like a) Mind Mapping b)Systems Thinking c)Six Thinking Hats d)Lateral thinking etc.

Five steps of easy information management

1. Explore the material , eg, the book, magazine you are reading using at least 3 different ways
2. Find information what is relevant to you without missing out the important ones
3. Find information you need quickly
4. Integrate new information with what you already know
5. accurately recall new information when you need it

How to manage written information?

Getting through the information of what you are looking at is very essential. The following steps outline that.

Step 1: Reorganize your reading habit

a) Preparation Stage: Be clear of your needs and avoid reading unnecessary documents

1) Identify what you already know about the topic.

2)  Next segregate what you need to know

3)   Be clear on how to use the information. Is it a report, or summary or proposal etc.

b) Structure: Never miss relevant information

1)  How many paragraphs the content will be , Common points are : a. Introduction b. Body c. Conclusion.

2) Decide on if you need to add pictures, graphs to make the content clearer.

3) The correct font, size, bullet points needs to be decided.

c)   Understand retain and recall information by becoming familiar with the structure, content, language and concepts.

It is a good practice to get your tools ready before start , get your pencil, highlighters, marker pens, flip charts  handy.

Step 2 : Read more words faster, concentrate with focussed attention

1. Average reading speed of a person vary from 150 to 300 words per minute, which is good, but this can be made better if you start reading the whole sentence at a time rather than word by word. To achieve this keep a scale or pencil, below the line which you are reading and start sliding them down fast as you finish completing that line.  Try to measure your reading speed, number of lines you can read /per minute and improve upon it.
2. Focus on one thing at a time and remember what you read.
3. Try reading in a clear space (eg, clear desk) with less clutter and noise and manage your elements of distraction.
4. Read the content with the speed it deserves for example with magazines , news paper you need to read fast as they are quite lots in volume, but emails , memos, official circulation etc needs to be read with slow pace and care as missing out minor detail will negatively impact you.

Indexes and Abstracts

•      Indexes and Abstracts

Finding Information

•        What is an index?

•        Indexes are usually found at the back of books or journals. An index is an alphabetical list of key information which is in the book or journal and where it may be found within the book or journal i.e. page numbers or issue numbers.

•        Many indexes are now available online.

•        Purpose of Index

•        Purposes

•        Indexes and abstracts are tools for identifying articles in journals. You may also be able to use them to identify book chapters, dissertations, conference papers, and other secondary sources.

•        Types of Index

•        There are  two types of indexes: general and specialized.

•        General indexes cover a broad variety of topics and may index popular magazines, newspapers, and some scholarly journals. Specialized indexes cover a specific topic or discipline and will usually index more scholarly journals.

•        General Indexes

•        One drawback of general indexes is that due to the nature of the magazines they include, you may find some less reliable and less informational articles 

•        Specialized Indexes

•        The articles you find are generally more reliable because these indexes tend to include more scholarly journals.

•        What is an Abstract?

•        An abstract is a summary of a journal article, book, or other publication, such as a thesis. Abstracts help you decide whether an item contains information which is relevant to your research. Many online bibliographies and indexes also include abstracts, especially for more recently published material.

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•        Types of Abstracts

•        There are two types of abstracts: informational and descriptive.

•        Informational Abstracts

•        communicate contents of reports

•        include purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations

•        highlight essential points

•        are short—from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the report (10% or less of the report)

•        allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report

•        Descriptive Abstracts

•        tell what the report contains

•        include purpose, methods, scope, but NOT results, conclusions, and recommendations

•        are always very short— usually under 100 words

•        introduce subject to readers, who must then read the report to learn study results

Primary and Secondary Source Information

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Primary sources mean that it is an  original article or book created by an individual or sometimes a group of people. What types of primary sources are available? It might be surprising to know that a novel is a primary source. Other types of primary sources are paintings created by the artist. If it were a photocopy of the painting, then it would be a secondary source. Some other primary sources are letters, films, short stories, plays, poems, photographs, court cases, journal articles, newspaper events, and speeches. For instance, a speech by President Bush would be a primary source.

In simple terms primary sources come firsthand from the source or person. Diaries would be a primary source because it is written directly by the individual writing in the diary. Interviews are great primary sources because the individual talks about the topic directly from what he/she knows about the topic. Primary sources are usually firsthand information about something such as diaries, court records, interviews, research studies about experiments, and information that has been stated but not interpreted by others.

Some examples of primary sources are e-mails and letters. They are directly written about one person. If this letter was written during World War II and analyzed by another person then it would be a secondary source. Debates, community meetings, surveys, and observations are some different primary sources.

Secondary sources are sources that are written about primary sources. Secondary sources analyze, interpret, and discuss information about the primary source. If a magazine writer wrote about the speech President Bush gave on September 11th, it would be a secondary source. The information is not original, but it is an analysis of the speech.

In simple terms, a secondary source writes or talks about something that is a primary source. For instance, if a person were to write about ia painting hanging in the art gallery, this would be a secondary source discussing the original art.

Secondary Sources include journal articles, books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, reviews, newspaper articles, specific essays, etc. Most research papers are based on secondary sources as they build on the research or studies others have done.

Other types of secondary sources are reference materials, books, and CD Rom, magazines, videotapes, and television shows. Most secondary sources analyze the material or restate the works of others. Many secondary sources are used to argue someone's thesis or main points about a topic. For instance, a secondary source would use debates between the presidential candidates in their magazine article and show how one president feels about a topic the writer is discussing.

Sometimes a source can be a primary source in one journal article and a secondary source in another journal article. It depends upon the relationship the writer has in the journal article. If he has been an active part of the research and he custom-writes about it then this is a primary source. If the writer writes about research done by others then this writing will be a secondary source.

Primary Sources are directly taken from an individual or group of individuals, while secondary sources take information from an individual or group and analyzes the topic. Remembering this information helps in deciding whether it is a primary or secondary source.

Web Directory

Topic: Searching the Internet

Difference between search engine and web directory

Web directory

Definition

Organized, categorized listings of Web sites.       

Search Engine

Definition

A program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents where the keywords were found. Although search engine is really a general class of programs, the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google,  Alta Vista and Excite that enable users to search for documents on the World Wide Web.

Difference between web directory and search engine

 Web directories are organized Web site listings put together by human reviewers, whereas search engine listings are put together by automated systems and lack a navigable structure. Much of the confusion stems from the fact that search engines have incorporated directory features to assist with issues such as categorization and site quality.

Advantages to using web directories

There are advantages and drawbacks to using a Web directory as opposed to a search engine.

·      One vehicle may be better suited to certain types of searches than the other.

·      Directories place an emphasis on linking to site home pages and try to minimize deep linking. This makes directories more useful for finding sites instead of individual pages.

·      Some directories attempt to solve this shortcoming by partnering with a search engine for supplemental listings.